“I couldn’t afford to buy fresh water, I don’t have money to buy fresh water,” Hatim Farwana tells Daraj. In the scorching sun, he “forcefully” walks two kilometers to get free water. “Drinking water costs 4 shekels ($ 1.11) per gallon; it’s not affordable,” adds the seventy-year-old as he empties a gallon of water into the tank.
For many residents in Gaza, drinking seawater has become a desperate refuge, yet it is the last resort. The current conflict has led to an “environmental injustice,” with only 6 percent of Gaza’s population having access to clean drinking water.
The availability of water has decreased by 95 percent since the events of October 7. The quest for a drop of water has become “a policy of collective starvation and thirst amounting to genocide,” says Ahmed AlNajjar, an academic and criminal law researcher at Al-Azhar University. From bathing in the Mediterranean Sea just steps away from Deir al-Balah to walking over two kilometers through stagnant water and waste for a cup of water, the struggle to find clean water is a harsh reality in Gaza. “We want to drink, and we don’t ask whether the water is clean or if it has been tested as we used to do before the war,” AlNajjar tells Daraj.
Reducing the frequency of bathing, recycling and storing water, are some of the essential strategies for survival. “We store water in pots and gallons,” says Maha Al-Buheisli to Daraj. Al-Buheisli lives in Deir al-Balah in central Gaza and used to pay 15 shekels ($4.12) for 500 liters of water before the war. “But now it costs 90 shekels ($24.71) and a gas cylinder to lift it to the roof,” she adds.
The cost of a 12-kilogram gas cylinder varies based on urgency. “If you need it immediately, it costs between $200 to $290 on the black market. Otherwise, if you can wait two months, you can buy it for just $25,” explains AlNajjar.
Water is a human right and is essential for ensuring other rights, including the right to food and the right to life. Despite the collapse of the Oslo Accords—a series of agreements addressing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict— it included clauses aimed at ensuring cooperation on water issues and rights for both parties. However, Gaza’s residents have faced violations of their right to water for nearly thirty years. Before the current conflict, most Palestinians in Gaza received only 82.7 liters of water daily, which is less than the World Health Organization’s recommended minimum of 100 liters per day.
The impact of the conflict, which began on October 7, shows that the destruction of water sources and infrastructure is not merely a humanitarian crisis but also a deliberate act against the environment aimed at destroying what remains of the essentials for life. Damage to infrastructure, power and fuel outages, and the prevention of municipal maintenance or the lack of spare parts for repairs have all disrupted water supplies. This has created an environment that facilitates the spread of diseases and epidemics, potentially making Gaza uninhabitable for decades.
Forced Displacement and Access to Water
“Even when the municipality manages to pump water, many citizens do not benefit from it due to damaged or nonexistent pipes. Others have been forced to leave their homes to live in plastic tents, where there is no infrastructure to provide water,” says AlNajjar.
The repeated displacement of residents since the October 7 attacks has barely provided them with the essentials for survival. Around 360,000 housing units in Gaza have been damaged and Gazans have been forcibly displaced in search of water, as was the case of Dr. Yasser Abu Sulmiah, who took refuge in a cattle farm in Khan Younis, as he told Daraj.
Due to Israeli calls for residents to move to central and southern Gaza, densely populated areas are facing challenges in accessing water as a result of increased demand and limited infrastructure. Currently, the city of Deir al-Balah, with about 700,000 residents and displaced people, faces severe health and humanitarian challenges. All water sources, including 19 wells and a water tank, have stopped functioning due to severe fuel shortages.
In several areas of the Gaza Strip, water from municipal sources reaches homes every week or ten days. Residents rely on trucked desalinated water for drinking and cooking, which imposes heavy financial burdens on poor families: prices can reach 35 times that of municipal water, according to Khaldoun AlHin, former director of the Water and Environment Institute at Al-Azhar University. With the onset of the conflict, private distributors have become the primary source of water in Gaza, providing about 3,300 cubic meters of water daily to residents.
Using donkeys and carts, distributors transport water from local wells to residents. The cost of water tanks transported by carts ranges from 70 to 100 shekels ($25 to $30). “Those who can afford to buy water tanks face additional challenges, as they must manually transport them to rooftops due to the lack of electricity needed for pumping,” Ahmed AlNajjar tells Daraj.
Some residents have allowed their neighbors to access water from private wells, either for free or for a fee. For instance, Ali Abu Jayab told Daraj that he currently pays 1,000 shekels ($276.65) monthly to access water from a well located on his neighbors’ land. However, many citizens cannot afford the high prices and rely on mobile water trucks provided by regional and local NGOs. According to Ahmed AlNajjar, they have to wait in line for hours to fill 3-4 liters of water.
“Eleven wells have been rehabilitated, 110 fixed tap points have been established, and temporary water networks have been set up in the streets to supply shelters and displaced persons,” said Saeb Lakan, Media Director at Khan Younis Municipality, to Daraj. He added that the municipality has successfully operated a desalination plant with support from the International Committee of the Red Cross.
Wastewater for Drinking
With the current conflict and citizens being deprived of a cup of water, one resident in Jabalia camp told Independent Arabia: “I was searching for water for six hours; I even thought about drinking from the sewage, but I couldn’t find anything.” Another resident said: “We are waiting for a donor to have mercy on us and bring us water.”
For years, Gaza has heavily relied on groundwater for drinking, agriculture, and domestic use. However, “the rapid population growth and continuous exploitation of groundwater have led to a decrease in levels by more than 11 meters in certain areas,” Khaldoun AlHin, former director of the Water and Environment Institute at Al-Azhar University, tells Daraj. He adds that “this has facilitated the intrusion of seawater into groundwater at depths exceeding 3 kilometers in some locations, increasing salinity levels and concentrations of chemicals such as boron in groundwater beyond internationally accepted standards.”
Due to seawater intrusion into wells, 97 percent of Gaza’s water needs desalination to make it potable. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics states that the amount of desalinated drinking water in Gaza was 7.5 million cubic meters in 2021. In the world’s largest open-air prison, there were three main desalination plants operating before October 7. According to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, only two of these desalination plants are currently working intermittently due to being targeted in military operations.
As attacks on water infrastructure continue, citizens rely on less clean sources of water, even if contaminated, Ahmed AlNajjar tells Daraj. The United Nations Environment Programme highlighted that, due to damage to one sewage treatment plant in 2009, groundwater has been contaminated with over 100,000 cubic meters of sewage and heavy metals from sludge.
Currently, untreated sewage may be concentrated in some areas of southern Gaza due to the high population density, especially amid ongoing forced displacement, which will also contribute to groundwater contamination.
Sewage water in the streets of Khan Younis as the result of the destruction of sewage lines. Courtesy of the Khan Younis Municipality.
Before the war, significant amounts of money were invested in building sewage treatment plants to improve public health and environmental conditions. However, UNICEF states that there are currently no functioning sewage treatment plants in the region. A BBC investigation confirmed that out of six sewage treatment plants, four are damaged or destroyed. The remaining two have ceased operations due to a lack of fuel or supplies.
Every day, 130,000 cubic meters of sewage are pumped from Gaza into the Mediterranean Sea. Saeb Lakan, Media Director at Khan Younis Municipality, told Daraj that the municipality “pumped sewage into the sea due to the lack of diesel required for primary sewage treatment operations.” Discharge of untreated sewage in Gaza has been a serious cause of groundwater and marine pollution for several years.
Sewage pumped into the Mediterranean Sea in Khan Younis. Courtesy of the Khan Younis Municipality.
In January 2024, Israel announced via the X that it had pumped large amounts of saline water into Hamas tunnels. This action increases the risk of groundwater contamination due to the pollution of seawater with sewage. UNRWA reported severe damage to sewage infrastructure, forcing thousands of families to rely on seawater for washing, cleaning, and even drinking. This means that citizens are indirectly consuming untreated sewage.
A child filling what seems to be dirty water into another bottle. Courtesy of a Gazan resident.
The continuous calls for displacement in Gaza have put immense pressure on the sewage network, causing it to overflow onto the streets, which poses a significant threat to the groundwater. Gaza has become a breeding ground for diseases and epidemics due to reliance on private wells and water trucks, which might be contaminated.
Another environmental hazard resulting from the attacks is the halt in solid waste management services. The leachate from untreated waste, which has accumulated in Gaza’s streets over the past nine months, poses a significant danger to groundwater. Saeb Lakan adds that “there is a major problem with the disposal of hazardous medical waste, and a greater issue lies in groundwater contamination due to improper disposal of slaughterhouse waste following the destruction of Khan Younis Municipality’s slaughterhouse, the only one in the southern governorates of Gaza.”
Potential Groundwater Contamination
By July 2024, Israel had dropped 2,000 pounds (970 kg) of explosives on the Gaza Strip. The Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor noted that the weight of the bombs used by Israel exceeded that of the bombs dropped by the United States on Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II. Israel had dropped over 25,000 tons of explosives on Gaza by the end of the first month of the attacks, according to the organization.
In his conversation with Daraj, Khaldoun AlHin, former director of the Water and Environment Institute at Al-Azhar University, suggests studying whether the extensive use of bombs and explosives has affected groundwater. “There is concern that groundwater has been contaminated by explosive residues and fine metals.” Heavy metals can slowly migrate through the soil, ultimately degrading groundwater quality. Samples from municipal wells at the end of Operation Cast Lead in 2008 showed traces of iron, chromium, and zinc, but at concentrations below WHO standards.
Deliberate Attacks on Water Infrastructure
With the recent conflict, each resident of Gaza receives about 5 liters of water daily, including for drinking, cooking, and daily needs, according to local authorities. UNICEF notes that the minimum required water in emergencies is 15 liters, including for drinking, washing, and cooking. Before the war, 97 percent of households were connected to municipal water services. However, these services suffered from inconsistencies due to poor pumping operations resulting from leaks or illegal connections to water networks, according to the same source.
There is no comprehensive list of the damage to water infrastructure, as figures are subject to change or local authorities have difficulty accessing sites to report damage. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, only 10 to 12 percent of the water available before the war is currently accessible. “There is severe thirst among citizens and displaced persons in shelters and camps,” Lakan says to Daraj.
Daraj tried contacting the five largest municipalities out of 20 in Gaza (Gaza City, Jabalia, Deir al-Balah, Rafah, and Khan Younis) but only received a response from Khan Younis Municipality by the time of publication. According to information released by Gaza Municipality, the ongoing water crisis in large parts of the city is due to damage to water lines operated by Mekorot – Israel’s national water company. Mekorot lines provided 9 percent of Gaza’s water supply during peacetime. As of July 2024, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs reported that one in three Mekorot water lines from Israel to Gaza is partially operational.
Israeli occupation forces have destroyed approximately 40 wells and caused partial damage to 16 others, in addition to 8 large tanks and pumps, according to Gaza Municipality. Additionally, around 70,000 meters of main and secondary water pipes have been destroyed. Of the 603 water facilities in Gaza analyzed by the BBC, 53 percent were found to be damaged or destroyed.
Environmental Crimes
“Environmental crimes” are not officially defined under international law. However, former International Criminal Court lawyer Diala Chehade explains to Daraj that the Rome Statute “considers environmental crimes within the context of war crimes under Article 8, which ‘includes intentionally launching an attack knowing that it will result in … widespread, long-term, and severe damage to the natural environment’.” The UN Special Rapporteur on the right to safe drinking water and sanitation and other UN experts link water deprivation to crimes against humanity and war crimes.
Protecting the environment and water infrastructure is an obligation for Israel under international law. While it abstained from signing the Rome Statute, Palestine officially acceded to it at the beginning of 2015. “This establishes the court’s jurisdiction over crimes committed in Palestine since June 13, 2014 (as per the Palestinian government’s request), with an open timeframe since that date,” Shihadeh explains.
Regardless of the Rome Statute, Israel is obligated to protect water infrastructure under customary international law, a set of rules derived from general practices. Attacking, destroying, or rendering vital civilian infrastructure, such as drinking water facilities, uninhabitable is prohibited under customary international law. The use of methods that can cause widespread and severe damage to the natural environment is also prohibited. Additionally, the 1997 Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions, ratified by Palestine in 2018, mandates “the protection of objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population,” including “drinking water facilities and supplies, and irrigation works.” The UN Security Council has affirmed these rules in resolutions 2417/2018 and 2573/2021.
Intentional damage to water infrastructure and sewage treatment plants constitutes a violation of international environmental laws. Coastal groundwater contamination poses a significant threat to marine and environmental health. Israel is one of the signatories of the Barcelona Convention, which aims to protect the Mediterranean Sea from pollution. International criminal law expert Diala Chehade explains to Daraj that “any actions that compromise the integrity of Mediterranean waters constitute a violation of this convention.”
Furthermore, “attacks on water and sewage infrastructure constitute war crimes under international criminal law, potentially amounting to genocide if proven to be committed with the intent to weaken and harm the Palestinian people in Gaza with the aim of causing their extinction,” says Chehade.
Armed conflicts not only lead to severe humanitarian crises but also cause environmental damage that makes land uninhabitable for decades. There is no doubt that Israel is using Gaza’s environment as a weapon of war. Israeli attacks on water and sewage facilities are considered environmental crimes.
Amid the ongoing conflict and deliberate targeting of vital water infrastructure, it is crucial to emphasize the urgent need for accountability and environmental protection during armed conflicts.
