This investigation was produced with the support of Journalismfund Europe and Investigative Journalism for Europe (IJ4EU)

The Sultanate of Oman, the third-largest country in the Arabian Peninsula, is distinguished by a unique natural wealth that makes it one of the most biologically diverse countries in the region. However, this environmental richness is increasingly challenged by the overlap between oil and gas company licenses and protected areas. Despite legislative efforts requiring compliance with protection standards, this investigation, conducted as part of the “Environmental Genocide” project, reveals that The Sultanate of Oman ranks second among countries with the highest number of oil and gas licenses overlapping internationally recognized protected areas, with an overlap area of approximately 56,000 square kilometers, where 20 oil and gas licenses intersect with 35 protected areas. This overlap not only threatens Oman’s unique ecosystems but also endangers the future of species at risk of extinction, such as the Arabian leopard and the humpback whale in the Arabian Sea.

The journalistic “Environmental Genocide” project, led by the Environmental Investigation Foundation (EIF) and the European Investigative Collaborations (EIC) network, shows that oil and gas licenses overlap with more than 7,000 protected areas worldwide, with a total overlapping area of 690,000 square kilometers, larger than the size of France. This is occurring despite existing laws and ongoing efforts to protect key biodiversity areas.

Key oil and gas licenses overlapping with the largest protected areas in Oman

Block 50, owned and operated by Rex International Holding, overlaps with approximately 16,500 square kilometers across three protected areas, including the Al Wusta Wetlands Reserve, according to the project’s data, covering around 16,200 square kilometers.

Block 49 (Muntasir), operated by Tethys Oil AB, overlaps with approximately 10,200 square kilometers across two protected areas, with an overlap of nearly 10,100 square kilometers.

Salalah License, operated by Petrotel Energy Corporation, overlaps with around 6,200 square kilometers across 15 protected areas, most prominently the Jabal Samhan Reserve, with an overlap reaching 3,000 square kilometers.

Block 4 (Ghanim), operated by CC Energy Ltd, which owns 50% of the license, overlaps with approximately 3,400 square kilometers across five protected areas, including the Al Wusta Wetlands Reserve, with an overlap exceeding 1,800 square kilometers.

Block 6 (North, Central, and South Oman), operated by Energy Development Oman, which holds 60% of the licenses, alongside Shell with a 34% stake and Total with 4%. This block overlaps with more than 2,800 square kilometers across five protected areas, including the Jabal Samhan Reserve.

Most affected protected areas and their significance

Among the most prominent protected areas in Oman that overlap with oil and gas licenses is the Al Wusta Wetlands Reserve, listed under the Ramsar Convention. This reserve is of exceptional international importance due to its rich biodiversity and its role as a critical habitat for migratory birds. Each year, it receives around half a million waterbirds, including 23 species whose numbers exceed 1% of the total migratory bird populations traveling between Asia and East Africa.

According to the Ramsar website, the wetland reserve covers approximately 80% of the total area of the Al Wusta Wetlands Reserve in the Al Wusta Governorate. The site boasts high biodiversity and hosts around 80 threatened species, along with several endemic plant and animal species. These include the spurge plant (Euphorbia riebeckii), the Omani spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx thomasi), the green sawfish (Pristis zijsron), and the spotted guitarfish (Rhinobatos punctifer). The area also hosts approximately 24% of the globally threatened population of the Arabian Sea humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae).

This brings us to the humpback whale of the Arabian Sea (Megaptera novaeangliae), a globally unique population classified as “Endangered” on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. Scientific studies and dedicated marine mammal surveys conducted along Oman’s Arabian Sea coast since 2000 have confirmed that these whales are characterized by distinct genetic traits and geographic isolation, making them a unique and distinct subpopulation, according to the International Whaling Commission’s Conservation Management Plan and marine mammal conservation experts.

This is in addition to Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve, one of the most prominent protected areas in southern Oman. Three oil and gas licenses overlap with the reserve, the largest of which is the Salalah license, overlapping with an area exceeding 3,000 square kilometers. The reserve covers approximately 4,500 square kilometers and was officially designated by Royal Decree No. 48/97 in 1997. Today, it is the largest protected area in the country. It was established to protect wildlife in its natural habitats and to promote the sustainable use of resources, including wildlife-based ecotourism, according to UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention.

Jabal Samhan is the only site worldwide specifically designated for the protection of the endangered and unique Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr). It also provides habitat for other predators such as the striped hyena, Arabian wolf, caracal, foxes, honey badger, mongoose, and mustelids.

The reserve is also home to the Nubian ibex, listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as well as a rare African tree (Papea capensis). It also hosts the Dhofar white-toothed shrew (Crocidura somalica dhofarensis), which is classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. The steep cliffs in some wadis provide ideal breeding sites for rare bird species, including herons, tropical birds, and migratory species, according to UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention.

Arabian Oryx Reserve: Declared the Sultanate’s first nature reserve on 18 January 1994, the site was selected by UNESCO in the same year and inscribed as a World Natural Heritage Site. However, in 2007, “in a first-of-its-kind precedent… the Arabian Oryx Reserve in the Sultanate of Oman, which shelters this rare species of antelope, became the first site to be removed from the World Heritage List since the 1972 UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage entered into force,” according to UNESCO’s website. This followed Oman’s decision to reduce the size of the reserve by approximately 90% of its original area, a move that contravened the Operational Guidelines of the Convention. The World Heritage Committee considered that the unilateral decision to shrink the reserve and proceed with oil and gas exploration plans would destroy the value, integrity, and unity of the property, which also hosts other threatened species, including the Arabian gazelle and the houbara bustard. As a result, reducing the reserve to about 10% of its original size due to oil and gas exploration projects led to its removal from UNESCO’s World Heritage List, placing its biodiversity at risk. Nonetheless, the overlap with oil and gas licenses currently remains limited to approximately 90 square kilometers.

All of these areas possess unique biodiversity and sensitive landscapes that are critical for migration, breeding, and the conservation of endangered species such as the Arabian leopard, the Arabian oryx, and marine turtles. Some of these areas are protected under international agreements, such as the Ramsar Convention, which confers high scientific and environmental value. Consequently, oil and gas activities near these reserves, or the overlap of licenses with their geographic boundaries, pose a serious threat to ecological balance and endanger the distinctive plant and animal life of these areas.

Key Licenses and Companies Affecting Protected Areas

According to our data, Rex International Holding Ltd operates one active license in the Sultanate of Oman, Block 50, covering an area of approximately 16,500 square kilometers. This license overlaps with two protected areasa mong which: the Al Wusta Wetlands Reserve.

In its official reports, Rex focuses on the success of field development in Block 50. However, our data indicate that its license overlaps with three major protected areas. The company’s 2024 Sustainability Report states: “Although the Group operates in offshore areas where biodiversity is limited, the Group continues to ensure that its activities do not harm protected species listed under conservation frameworks.”

It is worth noting that Masirah Oil Limited (MOL) is wholly owned by Rex Oman Ltd, which in turn is a subsidiary of Rex International Holding. MOL holds a 100% interest in the offshore Block 50 concession in Oman. This concession is considered one of the group’s core assets, having achieved first oil production from the Yumna field in February 2020, according to Masirah Oil Limited’s website. Oil was first discovered in the GA South area in 2014, marking the first offshore oil discovery east of Oman after 30 years of exploration in the region, according to Rex International.

According to our data, Tethys Oil AB operates one active license in Oman, Montasar Block 49, covering approximately 10,000 square kilometers and overlapping with two protected areas. However, in 2021, Royal Decree No. 25/2021 was issued approving Tethys Oil Montasar Limited’s assignment of 50% of its rights and obligations under the petroleum agreement signed on 14 November 2017 for Block 49 to EOG Resources Muscat.

In its 2024 Sustainability Report, Tethys Oil AB asserts that it does not operate within areas classified as protected under IUCN categories or listed as UNESCO World Natural Heritage sites, and that it currently has no active projects within such areas. However, the data clearly show that Block 49 overlaps with two protected areas. The company’s decision to relinquish 50% of its rights and obligations has effectively enabled it to distance itself from responsibility in this context.

Meanwhile, Energy Development Oman operates Block 6 (North, Central, and South Oman) and holds a 60% stake in the license, alongside Shell with 34% and Total with 4%. This block overlaps with an area exceeding 2,800 square kilometers across five protected areas, including the Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve.

Petrotel Energy Corporation operates three active licenses in Oman: Salalah, Musandam, and Block 67, covering a total area of approximately 8,800 square kilometers. These licenses overlap with 17 protected areas, including Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve.

According to our data, CC Energy operates two active licenses in the Sultanate of Oman: Block 4 (Ghanim), covering approximately 3,400 square kilometers, and Block 3 (Affar), covering around 2,300 square kilometers, for a combined total of about 5,800 square kilometers. Both licenses are located within or overlap with six protected areas, including the Al Wusta Wetlands Reserve.

CC Energy’s website states that in 2008, through its subsidiary CC Energy Development LLC, the company acquired licenses for Block 3 (Affar) and Block 4 (Ghanim) along the eastern coast of the Sultanate, covering a total area of 37,000 square kilometers. In 2009, the company launched an exploration program that led to the discovery of commercially viable oil fields, marking the first discovery of light oil in the Khufai reservoir and the first oil discovery in the Barik formation within these concessions. Despite this, the company emphasizes in its corporate vision a strong focus on environmental and social issues and corporate governance.

As for Shell, the company operates a single oil and gas license in the Sultanate of Oman, holding a 67.5% stake in Block 11 Oman, which overlaps with approximately 1,600 square kilometers of one protected area. TotalEnergies holds 22.5% of Block 11 and 4% of Block 6 (North, Central, and South Oman). Block 11 overlaps with the Al Reem Nature Reserve, covering roughly 1,600 square kilometers of protected land, while Block 6 overlaps with five protected areas, including Jabal Samhan Nature Reserve and Al Reem Nature Reserve, across an area of approximately 2,800 square kilometers of protected land.

According to our data, ENI is the operator and license holder of the Jabal Himah concession in Oman, which significantly overlaps with three protected areas, with a total overlapping area of around 400 square kilometers.

Occidental Petroleum operates two oil and gas licenses in Oman (Block 9 Sunaynah and Baqlah), which together overlap with more than 3,000 square kilometers across three major protected areas.

It is worth noting that European and foreign companies (such as TotalEnergies, Shell, ENI, and others) are subject to clear environmental obligations and are required to publicly disclose any overlaps or violations involving protected areas, in accordance with international standards, as well as the laws and regulatory commitments governing their operations in the Sultanate.

None of the companies mentioned above responded to Daraj’s and the project team’s questions prior to publication, with the exception of ENI and TotalEnergies. Meanwhile, Shell declined to respond.

ENI’s response

According to ENI, “In Oman, oil and gas activities are subject to prior environmental approval by the competent authorities, including the conduct of environmental impact assessment studies, ensuring that mitigation measures are identified, implemented, and monitored.” The company added that “in the following countries—Algeria, Angola, Australia, Gabon, Indonesia, Iraq, Mozambique, Myanmar, Norway, Oman, Ukraine, and the United Arab Emirates—there are no planned activities, as ENI does not hold active operating concessions that overlap with protected areas, nor concessions where operations are expected to commence within the next four years.”

ENI further stated that “in 2024, the company held 32 exploration and production concessions overlapping with 18 biodiversity priority areas (including protected areas) worldwide… however, concessions that have not yet entered the development or production phase, are not operated by ENI, or do not have active operational assets within the overlapping area are not included in the company’s aggregated disclosure in its sustainability report.”

TotalEnergies’ response

The company argued that the project’s data “does not reflect on-the-ground realities, as it calculates the theoretical ‘overlap’ between exploration and production licenses and protected areas, whereas only a small portion of any license area is actually occupied by existing facilities.” It added that “oil and gas exploration or production licenses concern reserves located underground, while protected areas are defined at the surface… In practice, interactions with protected areas arise mainly from the physical footprint of installations and their zones of influence. On this basis, TotalEnergies measures and discloses its data not on the full licensed area, but on the actual operational footprint.”

The role of major oil companies and the enforcement of environmental legislation

Omani royal decrees—most notably Royal Decree No. 114/2001 on Environmental Protection and Pollution Control, Royal Decree No. 8/2011 issuing the Oil and Gas Law, and Royal Decree No. 6/2003 on Natural Reserves and Wildlife Conservation—require that any oil or gas activity within or near protected areas be subject to a set of strict regulations.

Royal Decree No. 8/2011 Issuing the Oil and Gas LawChapter Three Restricted ZonesArticle (26) The holder of the concession right is prohibited from carrying out operations covered by the concession agreement at a distance of less than two hundred meters (200 m) from cities and villages, roads, mosques, cemeteries, archaeological sites, natural reserves, protected natural sites, dams, aflaj (irrigation channels), wells, restricted areas, and any other facilities.

The exploitation of mineral resources, the establishment of facilities, or the implementation of any projects within a natural reserve is prohibited unless prior approval is obtained from the competent minister and a detailed environmental assessment is conducted outlining measures to prevent harm and the necessary preventive actions (Articles 4 and 5 of the Protected Areas Law).

Royal Decree No. 6/2003 Issuing the Law on Natural Reserves and the Conservation of WildlifeArticle (4) No activities related to the exploitation of mineral, natural, or water resources may be carried out within natural reserves, nor may any facilities be established or development activities undertaken therein, nor any measures taken to grant rights thereto, except after obtaining the approval of the Minister.Article (5) The environmental assessment submitted for any public or private development project must clearly specify all data related to the measures adopted to avoid harm to natural reserves and wildlife, prior to obtaining approval for the project.

A comprehensive environmental impact assessment must be submitted for any new project suspected of posing environmental risks, and an environmental permit must be issued before any activity begins. It is strictly prohibited to grant any license for a project that may cause irreparable or unmitigable harm to the environment (Article 16 of the Environmental Protection Law).

Anyone who damages nature conservation areas or wildlife is subject to severe penalties (Article 33).

Royal Decree No. 114/2001 Issuing the Law on Environmental Protection and Pollution ControlArticle (16) The owner of any source or work area that may, in accordance with the criteria set by the Ministry, pose a risk to the environment that can be avoided or mitigated, shall submit a detailed study assessing the environmental impacts resulting from the source or work area. The study must confirm that its benefits outweigh its potential environmental harms, and this must be done prior to submitting an application for an environmental permit.The competent authorities responsible for granting licenses for such sources or work areas shall require the inclusion of an environmental impact assessment study among the documents submitted for licensing, and shall consider the costs of the detailed study and of mitigation, treatment, or limitation measures as part of the total cost of the source or work area.It is prohibited to license the practice of any activity that may cause environmental damage that cannot be avoided or remedied.Article (33) Anyone who causes damage to nature conservation areas or wildlife, whether by cutting, hunting, killing, or by any other means, shall be punished by the following penalties…

According to these laws, operating companies such as Shell, TotalEnergies, ENI, Occidental, Masirah Oil, and others are required to submit environmental assessment reports and obtain official permits for any activity carried out within or near protected areas. The legislation obliges them to ensure environmental disclosure, submit environmental impact assessments and monitoring reports, and adopt rigorous monitoring methodologies with external verification of compliance and procedural integrity. Companies are also required to disclose all operating assets that overlap with protected areas, with mandatory external verification of environmental data and the application of robust monitoring frameworks, particularly under global sustainability agreements such as the 30×30 initiative, which aims to protect 30% of the Earth’s surface by 2030.

This extensive overlap places a significant responsibility on both government authorities and companies to enforce environmental protection and oversight standards and to develop sustainable management plans that safeguard protected areas and their biodiversity. It also underscores the need for greater transparency in corporate reporting and for mandatory independent environmental assessments for any oil or gas project located within or near protected areas.

This piece is part of the “Fueling Ecocide” investigative series, conducted by 13 international media platforms, coordinated by the Environmental Investigative Forum (EIF) and the European Investigative Collaborations (EIC) network. Media Platforms: Mediapart (France), Reporters United (Greece), Domani (Italy), Daraj (Lebanon), InfoAmazonia (Brazil), InfoCongo (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Der Standard (Austria), The Bureau of Investigative Journalism/TBIJ (United Kingdom), El Espectador (Colombia), 24.hu (Hungary), Le Soir (Belgium), Expresso (Portugal), and InfoLibre (Spain).This investigation was supported by Journalismfund Europe and IJ4EU (Investigative Journalism for Europe).Data and geodata analysis by Leopold Salzenstein (EIF), Dafni Karavola (Reporters United), Alexandre Brutelle (EIF), and Yann Philippin (Mediapart).Graphic design and illustrations by Simon Toupet (Mediapart).