This investigation was produced with the support of Journalismfund Europe and Investigative Journalism for Europe (IJ4EU)

A few meters from the shore in the Kerkennah Archipelago lies the production unit of PERENCO Tunisia, Oil and Gas Limited, a subsidiary of the global Perenco group, which extracts gas in the area after acquiring the “Chergui” exploitation license from the British company Petrofac in 2018.

At first glance, the surroundings appear ordinary and calm: a rocky shoreline covered with sea grass and shallow waters flowing in from the sea. From time to time, marine creatures break through the submerged rocks, such as a sea crab that suddenly appears before quickly hiding among the grass and stones.

Not far from the shore stretches a long network of charfia traps, a traditional fishing method for which the Kerkennah Islands are renowned. This technique relies on installing palm-frond structures in seawater to guide fish toward traps known as drina. In 2020, UNESCO inscribed this fishing method on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

“The Ramsar Convention exists only on paper,” says Issa Arous regretfully, an environmental activist and a native of the Kerkennah Islands. The islands are classified as wetlands under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, a designation that highlights the failure to respect international commitments to preserving environmental balance and biodiversity in the archipelago.

The Kerkennah Islands are one of many areas in Tunisia classified as wetlands, natural reserves, or national parks that are facing violations by foreign oil companies. The exploration and exploitation licenses for oil and gas held by these companies overlap with protected areas, causing environmental damage that threatens biodiversity, in addition to increasing greenhouse gas emissions.

This investigation is part of the “Ecocide” project led by the Environmental Investigative Forum (EIF) in collaboration with the European Investigative Collaborations (EIC) network and several international media outlets, including Daraj. The investigation relied on the Protected Planet (WDPA) database, which was cross-checked against data from MapStand, a research company specializing in mapping global energy infrastructure. Spanning an entire year, the project reveals how companies operating in the hydrocarbons sector conduct exploration and extraction of oil and gas in protected areas and nature reserves across many parts of the world, significantly contributing to biodiversity loss despite international agreements and national laws that prohibit such activities.

The Overlap Between Hydrocarbon Exploration Licenses and Protected Areas Is a Global Threat

While the 2022 biodiversity-focused COP15 climate summit concluded with a commitment by member states to protect 30 percent of the world’s land and seas by 2030, reality reveals human practices that threaten many nature reserves and national parks. Chief among these is the overlap between protected areas and zones designated for oil and gas exploration and extraction, operated by foreign petroleum companies. This overlap has a negative impact on biodiversity and threatens ecological balance through pollution and greenhouse gas emissions that exacerbate climate change.

Data from the “Ecocide” project show that more than 3,100 oil and gas licenses overlap with over 7,000 protected areas in 99 countries worldwide, covering a total overlapping area of 690,000 square kilometers, despite existing laws and ongoing efforts to protect key biodiversity areas.

Although oil and gas facilities themselves occupy only a small portion of the 690,000 square kilometers overlapping with protected areas, this encroachment represents an actual or potential threat to biodiversity. Exploration licenses alone cover 387,000 square kilometers of protected areas, and these licenses may already include infrastructure and exploratory wells. In marine protected areas, seabed survey techniques may be used, causing harm to various forms of marine life.

Among the most prominent holders of these licenses are globally known companies such as Total, Shell, Perenco, Eni, Exxon, OMV, and others.

A 2023 report titled “Losing Ground: Impacts of Fossil Fuel Extraction on Protected Areas Worldwide,” prepared by the Leave It in the Ground Initiative, Earth Insight, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), found that at least 918 protected areas worldwide host a total of 2,337 oil, gas, and coal extraction projects. The potential carbon dioxide emissions from these projects amount to 50.8 gigatons, equivalent to three times the combined annual emissions of the United States and China.

The same report notes that “protected areas play a critical role in conserving biodiversity and maintaining ecological balance; they are essential for carbon sequestration. Therefore, ecosystem degradation caused by fossil fuel extraction threatens their ability to combat climate change,” especially since halting extractive industries could “avoid the emission of billions of tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.”

Many researchers also emphasize that keeping fossil fuels in the ground within protected areas could prevent climate damages valued at 20 trillion dollars and save the lives of nearly 11 million people, according to an article published in the British newspaper The Guardian in 2023.

Accordingly, Resolution 102-3 adopted by the 2016 World Conservation Congress of the IUCN called on governments to “ban environmentally harmful industrial activities and infrastructure development in all categories of protected areas, while requiring strict assessments for any permitted activities.”

A Protected Area in Tunisia Overlaps With at Least One Oil and Gas License

According to data from the “Ecocide” project, 13 oil and gas exploration and exploitation licenses in Tunisia overlap with 23 protected areas, including national parks, Ramsar-designated wetlands, and nature reserves, across a total area of approximately 1,950 square kilometers. These licenses are operated by a group of foreign oil companies in partnership with the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities.

By way of reminder, Tunisia is home to 17 national parks, 27 nature reserves, 4 wildlife reserves, and 42 wetlands classified as protected areas under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. As a result, parts of these areas are now exposed to the risk of biodiversity loss, alongside serious environmental impacts and increased greenhouse gas emissions.

The Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities ranks first in terms of the number of oil and gas licenses it operates that overlap with protected areas. Five of its licenses overlap with 13 protected areas, covering a total area exceeding 1,600 square kilometers. It is followed, in terms of the number of overlaps with protected areas, by PRIMOIL S.A., which operates the El Kef license, overlapping with five protected areas across an area of approximately 47 square kilometers. In third place is PENNPETRO ENERGY PLC, which operates the Saouaf license, overlapping with four protected areas across an area of about 106 square kilometers.

Next is MAZARINE ENERGY, which operates the Ghrib license. This license overlaps with a protected area, Chott El Jerid, spanning approximately 18 square kilometers. Chott El Jerid has been classified as a Ramsar site since 2007 and was nominated in 2008 for UNESCO World Heritage status due to its unique natural characteristics and rich biodiversity.

Among the European companies holding hydrocarbon exploration licenses that overlap with protected areas in Tunisia are YNG Exploration Ltd, Perenco, Panoro, Serinus, and OMV.

YNG Exploration Ltd is the largest holder of petroleum licenses overlapping with protected areas. It co-owns two exploration licenses, Nefzaoua and Bir Abdallah, equally with the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities. These two licenses overlap with three protected areas: Chott El Jerid and the Wetlands of the Kebili Oases, both listed as Ramsar sites, as well as the Saghir–Jbil National Park. Located in the governorate of Tataouine in southern Tunisia, this national park covers an area of 2,870 square kilometers and is home to several endangered species, including the Dorcas gazelle, the fennec fox, and the houbara bustard.

This park is also affected by overlaps with two additional licenses owned by the Norwegian company OMV (Tunisien) Production GmbH: the Cherouq license, jointly owned with the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities, and the Sondes license, in which OMV holds a 40 percent stake. Together, these two licenses cover an area of 66.5 square kilometers within the Saghir–Jbil National Park.

Meanwhile, the overlap between the Chergui license, in which PERENCO Tunisia – Oil and Gas Limited holds a 45 percent stake in partnership with the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities (55 percent), and the Kerkennah Archipelago, classified as a Ramsar-listed wetland since 2012, covers an area of approximately 21.5 square kilometers.

Similarly, Serinus Energy PLC holds two licenses that overlap with protected sites: the Sabria license, in which it owns 45 percent in partnership with the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities (55 percent), and the Zinnia license, which it fully owns. Together, the two licenses cover 3.9 square kilometers across the Chott El Jerid and the Eastern Cap Bon Lagoons (Lagunes du Cap Bon Oriental), both of which are wetlands classified under the Ramsar Convention.

Failure to Enforce the Law and to Uphold International Commitments

All of this takes place despite Article 221 of Tunisia’s Forest Code, which stipulates that “all activities likely to harm the natural growth of animals or plants are prohibited or subject to restrictions, particularly terrestrial and marine hunting, agricultural, forestry, industrial, and mining activities, within a national or natural park.” Likewise, Chapter IV of the same code, concerning the protection of wetlands, states in Article 226 that “the discharge of toxic or polluting substances, whether liquid, solid, or gaseous, into wetlands is prohibited.”

It is also worth recalling that Tunisia has ratified several international treaties obliging it to take measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, limit its contribution to climate change, and protect nature and biodiversity from harmful activities. Notably, Tunisia ratified the Paris Agreement in 2016 and committed to reducing the carbon intensity of its economy by 45 percent by 2030.

Tunisia also ratified the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands in 1980, which obliges the state to preserve ecological balance and biodiversity in sites designated as wetlands under the convention. Article 3 of the convention states that “each contracting party shall formulate and implement its planning so as to promote the conservation of wetlands included in the List, and as far as possible the wise use of wetlands in its territory.”

In addition, Tunisia’s 2022 Constitution, specifically Article 47, guarantees “the right to a healthy and balanced environment and to contribute to climate safety,” and obliges the state to “provide the means necessary to eliminate environmental pollution.”

Despite this robust legal framework requiring the protection of the environment and the preservation of ecosystems from harmful human activities such as economic or industrial operations, construction, land use, or exploitation of the public maritime domain, the reality in Tunisia reflects a failure to enforce the law against violators and to honor the government’s international commitments to combating climate change.

We contacted the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities by email to request its response regarding the overlap of five licenses it operates with five protected areas, but received no reply. We also did not receive responses to our email sent to YNG Exploration Ltd concerning the overlap between its oil and gas exploration licenses and protected areas in southern Tunisia. However, OMV responded, stating that it “fully complies with the applicable laws and regulations in Tunisia” and that it is preparing a study in the Saghir–Jbil National Park. The company also affirmed that it has “taken into account the potential impacts on protected sites and put in place appropriate measures to prevent any significant negative impact of its activities on these sites, as part of the procedures for obtaining petroleum licenses.”

The Kerkennah Islands: A Persistent Threat From Oil Companies

The Kerkennah Islands, or the Kerkennah Archipelago, are located off Tunisia’s eastern coast, north of the Gulf of Gabès, about 18 kilometers east of the city of Sfax (approximately 270 kilometers from the capital, Tunis). The archipelago consists of two main islands, Gharbi and Chergui, along with 12 other smaller, uninhabited islands, mainly situated in the northern part of the archipelago, which covers an area of around 150 square kilometers. These include islands such as Gremdi, Remadia, Sefnou, and others.

The Kerkennah Archipelago is distinguished by its rich biodiversity and serves as an important refuge for birds, particularly wintering and migratory species, including the great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), the Caspian tern (Sterna caspia), the dunlin (Calidris alpina), and the Eurasian stone-curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus). It has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA), a classification that falls under the global inventory program launched by the international organization BirdLife.

The archipelago is also home to a wide variety of marine species, including fish, octopus, and sea turtles. In addition, it boasts rich vegetation, both on land where rare plant species of high cultural value can be found, such as Cenchrus ciliaris, and in the sea and along the coast, including the marine plant Posidonia (Posidonia oceanica).

The residents of Kerkennah mainly rely on fishing and agriculture for their livelihoods, despite the steady decline of agricultural land in recent years due to rising sea levels, which have led to the flooding of parts of the coastline and the salinization of freshwater resources.

Although the Kerkennah Islands are listed as internationally recognized wetlands because of their rich biodiversity in terms of animal and plant species, the presence of oil companies on and around the islands threatens this ecological balance and biodiversity. These companies drill wells to extract oil and gas both offshore and on land, in addition to laying pipelines to transport extracted quantities to production and export sites. All of these operations have the potential to affect marine plants and organisms, both below the sea surface and on it, as well as ecosystems more broadly.

Morsi El Fkih, the regional director of the National Agency for Environmental Protection in Sfax, acknowledges that “oil companies cause environmental damage, especially since their pipelines run along the seabed,” but notes that this is not unique to Tunisia and occurs in many parts of the world. He adds, “If we were to apply the law to the letter in the Kerkennah Islands and strictly adhere to the Ramsar Convention, it would not be possible to carry out any kind of activity in the area.”

On the other hand, the Kerkennah Islands are periodically affected by oil spills caused by petroleum companies holding exploration licenses in the area. In addition to Perenco, which owns 45 percent of the Chergui field in partnership with the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities, another foreign company holds an exploitation license jointly with the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities (ETAP): the Norwegian company Panoro Energy, which owns 49 percent of the South Sirsina concession and 49 percent of the Sirsina concession. Both concessions involve offshore oil exploration and are operated by Thyna Petroleum Services (TPS).

An image captured by SkyTruth, a platform that collects data on environmental threats to the planet through the analysis of satellite imagery, shows that the Kerkennah Islands are surrounded by oil slicks resulting from spills caused by petroleum companies.

In recent years, oil spill incidents affecting the Kerkennah Archipelago have repeatedly occurred. One of the most notable took place in March 2016, when petroleum substances leaked from Well No. 7 of the Sirsina field, operated by Thyna Petroleum Services (TPS). An estimated three cubic meters of oil reached the shores of Kerkennah, flooding parts of the coastline. At the time, the National Agency for Environmental Protection—responsible for monitoring industrial and petroleum facilities’ compliance with environmental regulations—filed a report against the company and required it to remedy the damage, without providing details on the extent of the harm.

The head of the office of the Minister of Environment and Sustainable Development at the time, Hatem Ben Kadim, stated that “the company did not inform the relevant authorities of the incident in a timely manner,” while the then director general of the National Agency for Environmental Protection downplayed the scale of the damage, describing it as “surface pollution.”

A year later, in November 2017, additional oil spills reached the shores of Kerkennah, causing the death of large numbers of fish and marine life. The results of an investigation conducted by the National Agency for Environmental Protection and the National Institute of Marine Sciences and Technologies confirmed the presence of “an amount of oil on the shore ranging between 1,000 and 1,500 liters, spread over an area of 1,500 square meters,” according to a statement published by the Ministry of Agriculture on December 27, 2017. However, responsibility was not formally attributed to the petroleum companies at the time, even as most residents and civil society activists pointed to TPS as the party responsible.

The former head of the Sfax Regional Union of Agriculture and Fisheries, Abdelrazak Krichan, criticized what he described as the “delay and procrastination of official state bodies—particularly the National Agency for Environmental Protection and the Ministry of Agriculture, Water Resources, and Fisheries—in publishing detailed investigation results and holding the parties responsible for oil pollution accountable, despite repeated promises.”

In March 2018, another oil spill occurred, reaching the Mellita area of the Kerkennah Islands. Once again, accusations were directed at the petroleum companies operating in the area, particularly Thyna Petroleum Services (TPS). The treasurer of the Sfax Regional Union of Agriculture and Fisheries stated that the source of the spill was this company.

We contacted TPS by email to request its response regarding the repeated oil spill incidents in Kerkennah that have been attributed to it, but the company did not reply to our inquiries.

The Tourism Sector in the Archipelago Pays the Price of Oil and Gas Exploration

The risk of oil spills continues to loom over the future of the archipelago and its 15,000 residents, whose livelihoods are increasingly under threat. Beyond the damage to fishing, on which a large portion of the population depends, those working in the tourism sector suffer from the repeated pollution of the beaches.

On the terrace of the Sirsina Hotel, in the Sidi Ferej tourist area of Kerkennah, the restaurant overlooking the shore is filled with customers who come to enjoy the seafood for which the hotel is known. Everyone takes in the sea stretching to the horizon, where anchored fishing boats are visible, along with platforms standing in the distance. We ask the waiter to tell us what they are, and he replies angrily: “They are oil platforms that threaten our work because of the spills they cause from time to time. How can the tourism sector on the island thrive with their presence?” He adds, “There are at least 14 of them installed not far from the tourist area where the hotels are located.”

The tourism sector in Kerkennah suffers from a shortage of hotels despite the archipelago’s strong appeal, with the number of visitors in the summer sometimes reaching 500,000 people. This is due to several factors, most notably the persistent pollution largely caused by petroleum companies, whose facilities are spread across various areas, both on the archipelago itself, as in the case of Perenco, and along its coastal surroundings.

For example, the eco-tourism project at Sidi Fankhal Beach has

remained stalled despite being planned since 1999. A Perenco production unit is located not far from this beach, approximately 2.14 kilometers away. The beach, which is frequented by vacationers from Kerkennah and elsewhere, suffers from environmental fragility.

All of this threatens the biological balance of the archipelago, which is already marked by fragility due to climate change and rising sea levels. These changes are beginning to flood several of the archipelago’s beaches and cause the salinization of freshwater. “In 50 years, large parts of the Kerkennah Archipelago could be submerged,” warns environmental activist Issa Arous, adding that “no industrial activity should be carried out in the Kerkennah Islands. Yet we find oil and gas extraction wells that affect the seabed and the coastline, especially in the event of leaks from offshore pipelines transporting hydrocarbons.”

It is worth noting that Perenco previously engaged in hydraulic fracturing aimed at extracting shale gas in the El Franeig field in southwestern Tunisia, according to a company statement issued in 2010 and a report published by the Heinrich Böll Stiftung titled “Shale Gas in Tunisia: Between Reality and Myths” (2015). The use of this “unconventional” hydraulic fracturing technique, or fracking, is known to cause “groundwater contamination as a result of injecting water at high pressure mixed with various added chemical substances to fracture deep rock formations rich in fossil fuels.”

A Paralyzed Protected Area

In an effort to preserve the fragile biodiversity of the Kerkennah Islands, the National Agency for the Protection of the Coastal Zone has been working to classify the northeastern part of the archipelago as a nature reserve, given its rich biodiversity in terms of animal and plant species, as well as the fact that it consists of small, uninhabited islands.

As we approach the shores of Gremdi Island, located about 350 meters off the coast in the northeastern part of the archipelago, aboard a fishing boat we rented, the waterbirds spread along the shoreline take flight, moving to another part of the island. With no human inhabitants, the birds appear to be the sole owners of the place, roaming freely over the rocks near the shore or wading into the seawater in search of food. As far as the eye can see, there is nothing but grasses covering the island’s sands and wild trees. The scene resembles a postcard of a pristine, untouched island, seemingly never set foot on by humans.

Gremdi Island, which covers an area of 196 hectares, is one of six islands slated to form the future nature reserve. However, its designation has been stalled to this day due to bureaucracy. Although the management plan has been ready since 2019, the procedures required for official classification—such as conducting a public inquiry and drafting the legal decrees to formally declare the area a protected reserve—have yet to be completed.

This delay comes at a time when the entire Kerkennah Archipelago is facing multiple threats, including unregulated urban expansion, pollution caused by the indiscriminate dumping of waste into the sea, and the impacts of climate change. Added to all of this is the danger posed by the continued operations of oil companies on the archipelago itself and along its coastline.

The Need to Tighten Oversight of Companies Operating in Protected Areas

Article 27 of Law No. 49–2009, dated July 20, 2009, concerning protected marine and coastal areas, stipulates that the following activities are prohibited, restricted, or subject to prior authorization within protected marine and coastal zones: “industrial, economic, tourism, and commercial activities” (Point 5), as well as “the discharge or dumping of liquid, solid, or gaseous waste, or other substances likely to cause direct or indirect harm to protected marine and coastal areas” (Point 14).

Regarding whether the state is able to halt or limit the activities of petroleum companies in wetlands, hydrocarbons expert Ghazi Ben Jmia explains that this is not possible, particularly when the date on which an exploration, prospecting, or exploitation license was granted predates the classification of the wetland as a nature reserve or as a site listed under the Ramsar Convention. However, he adds that “under the Hydrocarbons Code, these companies are required to remedy any damage if their activities harm the ecological balance of a protected area.”

Article 59 (Point 2) of the Hydrocarbons Code states that the holder of an exploration, prospecting, or exploitation license must “secure civil liability coverage to compensate for losses and damages caused to third parties as a result of carrying out its activities, including, but not limited to, coverage for environmental damage.”

In practice, however, this is not always reflected on the ground. In repeated cases of oil spills, petroleum companies have not always acknowledged responsibility for the incidents. While they may address surface-level pollution at sea, deeper damage often remains unaddressed.

In this regard, Ben Jmia explains that when oil spills occur, whether at sea or on land, pollutants can seep into underground aquifers, making them difficult to detect and even harder to remediate. Assessing such damage requires in-depth studies and advanced technical and human capacities that the state does not possess. As a result, if the state is unable to evaluate the extent of the damage, it becomes impossible to compel petroleum companies to undertake compensation and remediation measures.

Ben Jmia therefore recommends tightening oversight of these companies, especially when they operate in protected or wetland areas, with inspections conducted on a weekly or even daily basis by the National Agency for Environmental Protection, which is responsible for monitoring industrial and petroleum facilities’ compliance with environmental standards. He also stresses the need for companies to carry out regular inspections of their equipment and pipelines to prevent leaks. In this context, he assigns monitoring responsibility to the Tunisian Company of Petroleum Activities when it is a partner in an exploration license or exploitation concession, as well as to the Ministry of Industry, Energy, and Mines, as the supervisory authority over Tunisia’s hydrocarbons sector.

This, however, appears difficult to achieve given the shortage of human resources within the National Agency for Environmental Protection, which lacks the capacity to regularly monitor all petroleum companies. One agency official, who requested anonymity, told us in a previous investigation into environmental damage caused by petroleum companies that the agency “intervenes only in the event of a serious accident or major gas or oil leak.”

We contacted the National Agency for Environmental Protection by email to request its response on this issue, but received no reply. Perenco, however, responded by stating that it “recognizes the importance of the Kerkennah Islands as a protected wetland, classified as a Ramsar site since 2012.” The company acknowledged “the overlap of the Chergui license with this area,” but asserted that “all operational and exploratory activities carried out to date within the concession area are located outside the boundaries of the nature reserve” (planned for the northeastern part of the archipelago). It added that it has “minimized its environmental impact to the greatest extent possible, in full compliance with local laws.”

This piece is part of the “Fueling Ecocide” investigative series, conducted by 13 international media platforms, coordinated by the Environmental Investigative Forum (EIF) and the European Investigative Collaborations (EIC) network. Media Platforms: Mediapart (France), Reporters United (Greece), Domani (Italy), Daraj (Lebanon), InfoAmazonia (Brazil), InfoCongo (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Der Standard (Austria), The Bureau of Investigative Journalism/TBIJ (United Kingdom), El Espectador (Colombia), 24.hu (Hungary), Le Soir (Belgium), Expresso (Portugal), and InfoLibre (Spain) .This investigation was supported by Journalismfund Europe and IJ4EU (Investigative Journalism for Europe). Data and geodata analysis by Leopold Salzenstein (EIF), Dafni Karavola (Reporters United), Alexandre Brutelle (EIF), and Yann Philippin (Mediapart). Graphic design and illustrations by Simon Toupet (Mediapart).